Nature, Feminism and Magical Realism in Margaret Atwood's Surfacing

Mixing feminism, ecological awareness and a magical realist mood, Margaret Atwoods's novel Surfacing explores how reconnecting with nature becomes an act of resistance and self-affirmation.

Nature Feminism and Magical Realism Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing (8) (1).pdf

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As Margaret Atwood observes in Survival: A Guide to Canadian Literature: “a piece of art, as well as being a creation to be enjoyed, can also be a mirror [,] the reader looks at the mirror and sees a reflection of the world he lives in”. When she wrote Surfacing in 1972, she therefore had the intention to bring out a fragment of her own world. The book is not solely written for entertainment; it has a message to convey. This is perhaps what makes it so deeply relevant even fifty years later. The narrative tackles a wide range of topics such as feminism, consumerism or identity and highlights issues faced by Canada at the time (and still today). The sartrean engagement that the author mentions results in morally engaged themes such as these two: “the need for women to regain their control and autonomy in a patriarchal society” and “the importance to keep nature alive as it is a part of one’s identity”. I argue in the following sections that the magical realism witnessed in the book strongly supports both themes. Furthermore, I also analyse the importance that Margaret Atwood gives to nature and the environmental concerns it thereby highlights. Before beginning my argumentation, however, I provide a summary of the book.

Surfacing follows an unnamed narrator and protagonist who returns to her rural home in Quebec in order to find her missing father. With her, she brings her boyfriend Joe and her friends Anna and David. Joe and David work on a film called Random Samples for which they collect samples of whatever they find interesting. Once they arrive at a village near the protagonist’s father’s island, the narrator visits one of her missing father’s friends named Paul. She also recalls having left her ex-husband with her baby but prepares to tell Paul and his wife that the child is still with her, simply that he was not part of the trip as “divorce is not part of their vocabulary”. Then, they seek the help of a guide named Evans. Evans brings them to the island and the narrator quickly starts to imagine that her father is still alive, but mad. During their stay, they lodge in the cabin where she grew up. There, tensions between the narrator and the other characters quickly arise. David’s sexist comments towards Anna annoy the narrator and her relationship with Joe deteriorates after her refusal to accept his marriage proposition. One day while looking in her father’s belongings, Atwood’s protagonist discovers that he had been searching for Indian rock paintings. She also notices a map with marked places and decides to visit one of them, accompanied by her friends. On their way, they see a dead blue heron that David wants to film. The narrator believes that the 2 American campers whom they saw previously killed it. Once they reach the marked location, there are no paintings which makes the protagonist angry, and they leave. On their way back, they discover that the Americans were Canadians. Nevertheless, the narrator still qualifies them as Americans because of what they did to the heron. A bit later, the narrator goes to another marked site where she concludes that the painting must be underwater, and she dives. While underwater, she spots an oval object that she identifies as her aborted baby. Shortly after, the truth that she never had a child nor an ex-husband resurfaces. He was a married professor who forced her to abort. After the events of the lake, the protagonist feels different and when David later tells her that the police have found her father’s corpse, she does not believe him. That night, she willingly has sexual intercourse with Joe so that she can become pregnant again. When it is time to leave the cabin, she decides to hide, and her friends do not manage to find her. They therefore leave while she becomes a sort of animal, going around naked and eating plants. Alone, she has visions of her parents, and she imagines that her child will be the “first true human”. Eventually,Joe comes back for her but “right now he waits” as she “tense[s] forward (…) though her feet do not move yet” (257).

2) Magical Realism in the Novel:

This part aims at pointing out how the magical realist component of Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing allows the main protagonist to reclaim her agency as a woman. Additionally, this part also highlights how the author’s use of magical realism reinforces the importance of nature regarding the protagonist’s development. First, however, I look at what brings magical realism to the narrative.

2.1) What allows for magical realism:

The use of a first-person narrator brings uncertainty and introduces magical realism in the novel. It is undeniable that the setting of the book appears at first glance to be realistic and devoid of any magical components. Nevertheless, the unreliable narrator already tests the limits of realism in the third chapter of the novel as she says that “[h]e thinks this is reality” (33) and that the village that they are leaving “shrinks” (34). Furthermore, the place quickly starts to impact the narrator’s perception of what is real and what is not as she claims in chapter four that she witnessed her brother almost drowning “through the walls of [her] mother’s stomach” (36). She is even able to tell what her brother looked like when he was under water “face upturned, eyes open and unconscious, sinking gently, air was coming out of his mouth” (36). Up to chapter 17, the limits of realism will not be tested through more than a few remarks about what she sees or remembers having seen. Consequently, this leaves the reader doubtless that Atwood’s protagonist simply uses metaphorical language, or that her memory is at times blurred as she says that she “ha[s] to be sure [her] memories are [her] own” (90). The events of chapter 17, however, bring more doubt and question the realistic setting. The following chapters display a more powerful and alive female. She can break free from anyone’s control, and she decides to stay alone in the forest, refusing to follow others. She even physically opposes herself to them as she destroys the footages of ‘Random Samples’, and her newly recovered body control translates into her pregnancy. Everything leads to believe that something truly happened within her when she experienced the magical events of chapter 17. These supranatural events, however magical, must have happened for the character to perform her evolution. The reader is therefore left with no choice but to distrust the realistic aspect of the setting and embrace the magical side of it. In other words, the failure of logic and reality asks for another perspective, another way to look at the world: “I had seen, true vision; at the end, after the failure of logic” (186).

2.2) Chapter 17, the “Volta” of the Story:

What subconsciously occupied the narrator’s mind resurfaces to become real in chapter 17. This confrontation with the truth helps the protagonist to evolve as a character, granting lots of significance to the magical realist moment described in this chapter. Before coming to this passage, however, it is important to properly introduce it. The chapter starts by describing the narrator’s search for the rock paintings her father had marked on a map. She therefore arrives to a lake, precisely where the mark is but the paintings are nowhere to be found. As a result, she concludes that they must be underwater, and dives into the lake. Once a few feet down, she sees something that is not a rock painting but “a dark oval trailing limbs [,] it was blurred but it had eyes, they were open, (…) it was dead” (182). The thing that she saw was her aborted child as she says a page later: “I killed it. It wasn’t a child, but it could have been one, I didn’t allow it” (183). This passage can be described as an instance of mythic magical realism, the magical emanates from the lake. Furthermore, this magical moment points towards the truth of her ill being. It frees her from her inability to figure out what rendered her so despondent. Here, her subconscious knowledge of the abortion resurfaces from the lake and confronts her with the aborted baby. She cannot fabricate a comfortable past anymore, which is what she did when she explained to her parents that she divorced her husband and that the child left with him. The lake experience marks a turning point in her search for identity as she now acknowledges the cause of her alienation. Indeed, she admitted that she “ha[d] trouble being human” (167). Now, she knows why: “I’d carried that death around inside me, layering it over, (…) a tumour” (185). Symbolically, the aborted child represents the life that she resents, a life dictated by patriarchal norms where women are told what to do. She was forced to abort as her ex-husband was married to someone else. Now that she has seen the truth behind her pain, she can begin to move on and identify who she is again. Moreover, the protagonist says of herself that she is now endowed with a new power: “power, in my hands and running along my arms” (199). This power can be understood as the power to evolve in the chaotic reality of the novel. Consequently, this is what she does in the following chapters.

There is a stark contrast between her behaviour before and after chapter 17. She goes from active to passive which shows that she has regained her autonomy as a woman. In chapter 6, she wants to return to the city but eventually stays as David decides to. Contrastingly, the opposite happens in chapter 21. The narrator has decided to stay, and she does, regardless of what David thinks of it. Evidently, this ability to make decisions on her own testifies of her evolution. Later in the chapter, she reinforces the magical aspect of her new reality as she claims that “there are no longer any rational points of view” (219). There is no better example of her newly acquired status than the first sentence of the last chapter of the novel as Atwood’s protagonist says that she is “not a victim anymore” (249). Her empowerment comes to a climax especially at the very end of the novel when Joe is waiting for her to come back. “But right now, he waits” (251), says the narrator. This penultimate sentence might be very short but when to go and the man, here Joe, must wait for her. In short, she has regained her autonomy as a woman.

In Atwoodian terms, Surfacing shows a protagonist going from the writer’s first to third position, while opening the door for the fourth. At first, the narrator denies the truth of her forced abortion, symbolic of the victimisation of women. To use Atwood’s terms, she “pretend[s] that certain visible facts do not exist” (Atwood, Margaret. Survival: A Guide to Canadian Literature. House of Anansi press, 1972, pp36) . After chapter 17, however, the narrator’s final state can be associated with the writer’s “third position”. She refuses to be a victim as she says on page 249 and displays a certain anger as she destroys Random Samples. Moreover, she “refuse[s] to accept the assumption that the role is inevitable” (Atwood, Margaret. Survival: A Guide to Canadian Literature. House of Anansi press, 1972, pp37). Indeed, actions similar to the destruction of David’s camera demonstrate her intention to leave this role. For example, she also refuses to be the victim of his sexual desire in chapter 18. Additionally, the “real cause of oppression” (Atwood, Margaret. Survival: A Guide to Canadian Literature. House of Anansi press, 1972, pp38) is identified, although not the first time. Furthermore, the narrator’s behaviour at the very end of the book suggests that she will embody Atwood’s fourth position as a “creative non-victim”. By experiencing the epiphany of chapter 17, she has been “able to accept [her] own experience for what it is rather than having to distort it to make it correspond with others”  (Atwood, Margaret. Survival: A Guide to Canadian Literature. House of Anansi press, 1972, pp39). Nevertheless, she cannot be regarded as an “ex-victim” yet as her potential come back to the oppressive city life that led to her victimisation is not dealt with by Margaret Atwood. She leaves it up to the reader.

Coming back to “the new power”, it is also a reference to the power of giving birth. By the symbolic use of a wished pregnancy, Margaret Atwood illustrates how the character now controls her body. Indeed, she gets pregnant in chapter 20. This pregnancy is a sign of her new self. By having a baby, she demonstrates that she has recovered control and can now give birth again: “I can feel my lost child surfacing within me, forgiving me, rising from the lake” (209). She has recovered her power as a woman although “they want to make you believe it’s their power, not yours” (101). Her regained ability to command her body allows her to strongly forbid anyone to force her to abort again as she is adamant that she will not be strapped to “the death machine” (210) again. Furthermore, her pregnancy makes it clear that she has dealt with her previous one and further reinforces the transformative effect of the mythic magical realism encountered in chapter 17. After seeing that the cause of her sadness was her thwarted pregnancy, she gets over it by starting a new one. Whereas a man previously forced her to end a life, she this time forces one, Joe, to create life by having sexual intercourse. Indeed, she “stroke[s] him” although he “bends himself away from [her]” (207). Consequently, not only does chapter 17 permit her to cope with her abortion, but it also allows her to assert her dominance towards men.

The book shows a character going from being associated with death (an abortion) to be associated with life (a pregnancy). Symbolically, this is a way for Margaret Atwood to exhibit the narrator’s rebirth and evolution. The narrator herself, feeling an impeding change, already foreshadowed a rebirth in chapter 19, the last chapter of the second part: “[e]verything is waiting to become alive” (203). This transformation is unleashed by the mythic magical realism witnessed in chapter 17. The event confronts the protagonist with the deadly consequences of her lack of body control and autonomy as a woman in a patriarchal society. As a remedy, she decides to reassert control over her body by willingly getting pregnant. Moreover, the narrator transitions from being passive to taking an active role, which is exemplified by her deliberate choice to stay on the island in isolation. There, she performs another magical realist transformation that once again allows her to resist the norms imposed by a patriarchal system. This is what I discuss in the next section.

2.3) Other Magical Realist Moments:

In the third part of the book, other magical realist moments come after the vision of her aborted baby. Likewise, they help the narrator to come to terms with other traumatic events, and to resist the societal norms imposed on women. Besides her abortion, the narrator also voices her struggles to get over her mother’s passing. This tragic death caused by a brain tumour deeply disturbed the narrator as she felt that her “faith in her [mother’s] ability to recover” lead her to believe that her illness was only a “natural phase”. Unfortunately for her, her mother passed away and “when she died I was disappointed in her” (40). Similarly to the events of chapter 17, there is a magical realist passage in the 24th chapter that allows the protagonist to cope with this death. Not only does the main character see her mother, but she also witnesses her turning into a jay: “[t]hen Isee her, she is waiting in front of the cabin (…) that is where she should be (…) the jays are in the trees (…) I squint up at them, trying to see her, trying to see which one she is” (237). This instance of grotesque magical realism brings peace to the narrator’s mind. She has been able to see her mother one more time. A proof of that is that there is afterwards no more passage where she laments her mother’s death or absence. Clearly, she has been able to come to terms with it and this was made possible thanks to grotesque magical realism. Additionally, this transformation can be labelled as an instance of mythic magical realism. As this type of magical realism implies, the metamorphosis is enabled by the natural environment of the novel. Moreover, the protagonist’s mother’s transformation into jays mirrors the narrator’s own transformation. Indeed, Atwood’s protagonist also turns into a sort of animal as the story further develops. For instance, she decides to live in a lair, eat berries and drink directly from the lake. By turning into a sort of animal herself, the narrator performs a reconnection with nature, with her natural self that is completely devoid of the superficiality imposed on women. Her non-acceptance of imposed feminine standards was already visible before. It starts with her telling Anna that she “do[oesn’t] need that [make up] here” (51). As a matter of fact, Anna never showed herself without make up because David “doesn’t like it" (52). When the narrator reverses the mirror towards the wall in chapter 23, it is therefore an action burdened with symbolism. The mirror is the one used by Anna to do her make up and where “Anna’s soul [is] closed” (228). The mirror therefore represents the imprisonment caused by the patriarchal standards regarding women’s appearance, and this is why the narrator reverses it. She thereby shows her disapproval. Eventually, this rebellion against these norms reaches its peak with her transformation. Once that she has become “a part of the landscape” (243), she is able to affirm that “the rules are over” (245).

Understandably, the setting initially seems realistic, but is in fact endowed with supernatural features. As a result the realism of the setting can be characterized as “deceptive realism”. The mythic magical realism that surfaces out of it draws the reader’s attention to the societal problems faced by the narrator and enables her to transcend it. By doing so, it points out the importance of keeping nature alive as it can be a helpful tool for people to cope with their trauma and to ascertain who they really are. In that sense, the novel can be labelled as an ecological novel which bringsthis essay to its next point: the importance given to a dying nature in the book, especially regarding its significance for (Canadian) identity.

3) the importance given to nature in the book, especially regarding its significance for Canadian identity:

Very often in the book, the reader is reminded of the two-sided face of Canada. The country is indeed dominantly rural while also being dominantly urban. On one hand, it is made of huge natural areas where few people live, which makes it dominantly rural. On the other hand,however, most of the population (3/4) lives in big metropoles such as Montreal or Toronto. This paradox reflects Canada’s complex identity as Margaret Atwood herself admitted when asked about what it feels like to be Canadian: “That is a minefield these days, but it always kind of has been”. “We have always been very diverse, we have always had to recognise that in some way (not sufficiently to my mind)”. “Think of it that way”. “For a while we got disparaged because we did not have one big symbolic thing that people could point to" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sYpjdP3kZIQ). In her guide to Canadian literature, however, Atwood interestingly identifies survival as the central symbol for Canada. In the same work, she explains that the word “can also suggest survival of a crisis or disaster” (Atwood, Margaret. Survival: A Guide to Canadian Literature. House of Anansi press, 1972, pp32), as the inner crisis and evolution of the narrator in Surfacing illustrates. The Canadian author also talks about “cultural survival” as “the Americans are taking over”. Evidently, one’s culture is a defining feature of one’s identity and should one’s culture be at risk, one’s identity would therefore also be endangered (This is for example what the German sociologist Helmut K. Anheier discusses in a 2020 article:

 https://online.ucpress.edu/gp/article/1/1/11755/106232/Cultures-Values-and-Identities-What-Are-theIssues). Consequently, the Americans are presented as a threat for identity.

As discussed, the connection between nature and identity is rendered apparent in Surfacing. The book dwells upon questions of female identity and how nature can help to reacquire it in a patriarchal society. It does not explain why nature is important for one’s identity, it presents it as a well-established fact and demonstrates it with the instances of mythic magical realism and their impact on the narrator. Moreover, the novel also raises concerns about what endangers nature. Atwood’s narrative points out that the great danger faced by nature is the Americanisation of the country. Thus, not only does Margaret Atwood warn her readers that nature is dying, but she also names a very real cause by including Canada’s political landscape.

3.1) The Threats of Americanisation Illustrated in The Book:

The book starts with the narrator’s observation that “the white birches are dying” because of a disease that “spread[s] up from the south” (3). Atwood already sets the tone of the novel and immediately confronts the reader with a decaying nature. As we learn later, this disease is in fact the wild Americanisation that Canada is undergoing and that destroys the country’s natural environment. The first chapters already exemplify that the transformation of the village into a small city is not normal: “suddenly there is a thing that isn’t supposed to be there [;] motel, bar, bière, beer” (15). Evidently, opening bars and motels is not devoid of any purpose, it is a way to develop the local economy and it means that there is a demand for it. As the narrator mentions, the Americans are the one who motivated the local authorities to build these establishments: “the city invited them [the Americans] to stay, because they were good for business, they drank a lot” (6). Moreover, Atwood’s protagonist deeply laments that the protagonist that “[her] country was sold” (169), as it has consequences. This economic growth works against nature and even comes to replace it as the narrator describes at the beginning of chapter five. When she lived in the city, the birdsong that waked her up had been replaced by the honking of trucks. As a result, she now has trouble identifying which bird sings. Her vision of nature is blurred by the urban landscape, symbolic of economic growth as she herself relocated to the city to work. Later in the story, the presence of Americans is explicitly described as destructive. The protagonist encounters “two irritated looking businessmen” with an American flag on their boat and one of them “throws his cigar butt over the side [into the water]” (81).

Although the country was “sold” so that Americans could use it, “the people were sold along with the land and the animals” (169). Consequently, the transaction opened the door for an Americanisation of the population and its outcome turns out to be as destructive as the arrival of Americans. As the story unfolds, the complete indifference towards nature brings morbid passages as in chapters 13 and 14. Their Americanisation implies that Canadians develop a certain need for entertainment and the consequence of this necessity is represented by the dead heron. It was killed not for eating purposes, but simply for the sport. The narrator judges the 2 men that they saw moments earlier guilty of this crime and assumes that this act can only be explained by their American nationality. She claims that “they must have been bored after the war” and that this “senseless killing” was “a game” (155). It is to her great sadness that she later realises that they are Canadians. “They killed the heron anyway (…), they’re still Americans”(165). As this exemplifies, one of the negative aspects of American imperialism, namely the lack of consideration for nature, seems to have reached Canadian shores as well. Whereas the narrator strongly condemns the 2 men’s attitude, David does not see it as a problem, but as an opportunity. Indeed, his reaction speaks volumes: “you can hold it for five minutes, it looks so great, you have to admit’ (148). Ironically, Canada’s biggest enemy appears to be itself. As I will explain, Margaret Atwood further develops this issue faced by nature through the ironical character that David is, as well as through the sporadic use of a gothic aesthetic.

3.1.2) David:

David is one of the narrator’s friends who accompanies her in the search for her missing father. Although he often voices his affection for Canada, it quickly becomes evident that “secondhand American [is] spreading over him in patches” (195). In other words, he has been contaminated by the disease of the Americanisation. Still, he self-identifies as a Canadian, but his Americanised lifestyle destroys his Canadian side. For instance, he associates the garbage found near the lake with the “sign of a free country” (140) whereas this is precisely what destroys nature and inevitably a part Canadian identity. Ironically, David is far from aware of his Americanised characteristics as he calls Americans “yank pigs”. Additionally, he also foresees a war between the 2 countries and claims that “by that time the Canadian Nationalist Movement will be strong enough” (123). Clearly, this statement shows his patriotic side. Nevertheless, David’s Americanism is further exemplified by the way in which Atwood indirectly characterises him. He likes baseball and laughs “like Woody Woodpecker”. Furthermore, he is also shooting a movie and the great number of Hollywood films released in the past decades verifies the American connotation associated with the art of filmmaking. Moreover, the movie is called Random Samples and contains (as the title implies): random samples of what he deems interesting. This testifies of his lack of self-understanding and identity; he thinks of himself as anti-American but he is in fact the very thing he hates.

Bearing all that in mind, David, and how American he has become, appears as the ultimate antagonist of the novel. On one hand, his negligence of nature shows him as an antagonist to the narrator’s reconnection to her natural self. This harmony helps her in her quest for identity and therefore supports the theme saying that nature is a key element in one’s identity. On the other hand, his overt sexism makes him an antagonist to the narrator’s development as a woman and he is therefore deeply linked to the first theme. Indeed, he is part of the machine that rips women of their autonomy. Thus, similarly to the narrator’s evolution, David links both themes.

3.1.3) The Gothic Encounter with the Heron:

As mentioned, the protagonist and her friends meet a dead heron in chapter 13. The encounter with the animal is described in an extremely gothic fashion. Firstly, the narrator does not see the corpse but “smell[s]” it, yet she knows that it is behind her as if she was involuntarily attracted by death. Then, she “hear[s]” flies meaning that the body of the deceased animal cannot respite in peace, as it is already attacked and eaten bit by bit. Finally, she turns around and sees it as it is “hanging upside down by a thin blue nylon rope”. Three of her senses are used here, but of course she does note taste it and touching it appears as too hard for her. Indeed, she is spellbound by this sight and says that “[it] looked at me with its mashed eye” (147). The animal might be physically dead, but it bears a lively message as it represents her fear of the Americanisation of Canada. The heron is a here to haunt her and has agency despite its apparent death. The protagonist says for example that “when [she] closed [her] eyes the shape of the heron dangled, upside down” (151). It therefore brings fear and a supernatural element to the passage, which makes it gothic. This once again shows that the realism of the novel hides another layer of truth behind it (as it was the case with magical realism). The dead animal is introduced without notice, it infests the novel with an unexpected macabre moment. The dead bird cannot remain unseen by the reader. One could argue that Atwood’s use of the genre serves a purpose here. It draws the reader’s attention to the ecological problem that comes with this wild Americanisation. Furthermore, the narrator further emphasises the gothic aspect of urbanisation and technological development by sharing her former fears that vacuum cleaners would have a counterpart that “could make people vanish” (150).

The unforeseen encounter with the heron mimics the unexpectedly quick Americanisation faced by Canada in the book. As a matter of fact, the protagonist is surprised at how American the Canadian killers of the animal are, even she cannot make the difference anymore. The phenomenon grows too quickly for her. As discussed, the same phenomenon can be identified with David as he is absolutely ignorant of his American penchants.

4) Conclusion:

As I stated in my introduction, Surfacing is a multi-layered narrative with messages to pass on to its reader. The effect of the protagonist’s magical realist experiences pushes her to further evolve and resist the patriarchal norms imposed on women. Consequently, it can be said that the end of Atwood’s novel brings a positive note. As mentioned, her protagonist is eventually able to evolve and come to terms with her past traumatic experiences. To demonstrate via some events from the book, the narrator symbolically thwarts David’s plan by destroying Random Samples or by refusing to become a victim of his sexual appetite. She thereby shows the ability to emancipate as a female individual, to be the only one who defines who she is. Furthermore, it is thanks to the magical realist aesthetic that the book demonstrates how important nature is regarding identity. Indeed, mythic magical realist moments allow the narrator to reconnect with her natural self. As explained, it is through this reconnexion that she is able to reaffirm herself as a female. Moreover, she, as a Canadian woman, is also able to resist the Americanisation as David clearly represents it. The book presents this wild Americanisation as a serious threat for Canadians and their identity as it brings a destruction of Canada’s natural environment. But by imagining a protagonist able to resist the Americanisation, Margaret Atwood manifests her hopeful vision that Canadian identity can survive, even though the American “disease” spreads over the country. Nevertheless, the author still draws the reader’s attention to a dying nature with the help of a gothic passage. The future might be bright, but the present is thus far speckled with dark spots and actions must be taken now. If not, it is a part of people’s identity that is at risk and just like what Atwood’s protagonists realises about her country’s Americanisation, it might happen quicker than people think.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival:_A_Thematic_Guide_to_Canadian_Literature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Laurence

Keith, W.J. Canadian literature in English. Longman Literature in English Series, 1985. Kröller, Eva-Marie. The Cambridge Companion to Canadian Literature (second edition). Cambridge University press, 2017.

Atwood, Margaret. Surfacing. Virago, 2022. Atwood, Margaret. Survival: A Guide to Canadian Literature. House of Anansi press, 1972. https://online.ucpress.edu/gp/article/1/1/11755/106232/Cultures-Values-and-Identities-WhatAre-the-Issues

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sYpjdP3kZIQ

Professor Marc Maufort’s lectures at the ULB during the 2023-2024 academic year

© Liam Magin. All Rights Reserved. This work is the intellectual property of the author. Do not copy or redistribute without permission.